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Science & Evidence

Mental training is full of claims. That's why we openly show what every recommendation is based on: method, purpose, level of evidence, source, population and limitations.

Strong

Robust evidence

Several controlled studies, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses show consistent effects, even outside individual labs.

Can be used as a core recommendation.

Moderate

Proven, with limitations

The evidence is generally positive, but sample sizes are small, effects vary, or studies concern different age groups or sports.

Can be recommended – with a clear limitation.

Emerging

Promising, not confirmed

Individual studies, pilot work, or well-reasoned deductions from related research. The effect is plausible but not confirmed.

Only as a supplement, never as a central promise.

Insufficient

No sound basis

No reliable studies, contradictory results, or purely anecdotal claims.

Not published as a recommendation.

Method Register

Every exercise, every hack, and every article is assigned to at least one of these methods.

Evidence: Moderate2 Sources

Breath-based regulation

Reducing short-term excessive physical activation: racing heart, shallow breathing, trembling before or after exertion.

Evidence: Strong1 Source

Attention control

Reduce distraction, overthinking, and self-monitoring during execution.

Evidence: Strong1 Source

Self-talk

Transforming inner dialogue from uncontrolled self-commentary into a usable instruction.

Evidence: Moderate2 Sources

Imagery / Mental Training

Consolidate movement patterns, prepare for game situations, build confidence in new environments.

Evidence: Moderate1 Source

Pre-Performance Routines

Stabilising execution under pressure and reliably directing attention before starting.

Evidence: Strong2 Sources

Process and goal setting

Direct attention and motivation towards what is within one's control.

Evidence: Moderate1 Source

Mindfulness- and acceptance-based approaches

Improve how you deal with nervousness, frustration, and self-criticism, instead of fighting feelings.

Evidence: Moderate2 Sources

Stress Physiology and Assessment

Explain why symptoms occur and why their interpretation co-determines performance.

Evidence: Moderate2 Sources

Adolescent development and stress

Understanding adolescent behaviour and recognising warning signs of overload.

Editorial review process

  1. Step 1 · Editorial

    Draft

    Are the idea, the occasion, and the target group clear?

  2. Step 2 · Editorial

    Editorial review

    Is language, structure and age-appropriateness correct?

  3. Step 3 · Sport Psychology

    Evidence Review

    Is every statement supported by a method with a source?

  4. Step 4 · Safety Review

    Safety check

    Are boundaries, warning signs, and support services correct?

  5. Step 5 · Lead

    Approved

    All tests passed, ready for publication.

  6. Step 6 · Editorial

    Published

    Live and in the next review cycle.

This counts as a source
  • Meta-analyses and systematic reviews
  • Peer-reviewed individual studies
  • Established sports psychology literature
  • Recognised professional associations
  • Medical organisations for health topics
That doesn't count
  • TikTok, Reels, and YouTube Shorts
  • Instagram posts and coach quotes
  • general blogs without sources
  • Influencer claims and testimonials as proof of efficacy
  • Product advertising from providers

Quality check before publication

  • Scientifically Accountable

    Every effectiveness statement is assigned to a method from the method register.

  • Sources available

    At least one peer-reviewed source or professional body behind the methods.

  • No unsubstantiated claims

    No content with 'insufficient' evidence level is published as a recommendation.

  • Boundaries set

    The methods used have documented limitations.

  • Clear Safety Limit

    Safety-relevant content undergoes a safety review and refers to help.

  • Review no older than 24 months

    Content is regularly reviewed against the current evidence.

  • No Diagnosis

    No content provides a diagnosis or suggests a disorder.

  • No unrealistic promise

    No guarantee of performance, playing time, or 'never being nervous again'.

  • Appropriate, age-appropriate language

    Accessible for 13–18 year olds – without sacrificing scientific accuracy.

  • Practically applicable

    At least one concrete action that can be implemented today.

Background articles

Moderate

Competition Anxiety: What's Proven – and What Isn't

Why tension isn't the problem, how strong the research really is, and where the line to an anxiety disorder lies.

Strong

What mental training can do – and what it can’t

Honest classification: where research shows stable effects, where it's thin, and where mental training is simply the wrong tool.

All sources

  • Simonsmeier, B. A., Andronie, M., Buecker, S., & Frank, C. (2021). The effects of imagery interventions in sports: a meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology.Meta-AnalysisPopulation: Athletes, predominantly teenagers and young adultsDOI 10.1080/1750984X.2020.1780627
  • Rupprecht, A. G. O., Tran, U. S., & Gröpel, P. (2021). The effectiveness of pre-performance routines in sports: a meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology.Systematic ReviewPopulation: Athletes of various performance levelsDOI 10.1080/1750984X.2021.1944271
  • Lehrer, P., Kaur, K., Sharma, A., et al. (2020). Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback Improves Emotional and Physical Health and Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta Analysis. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback.Systematic ReviewPopulation: Clinical and athletic samples, mostly adultsDOI 10.1007/s10484-020-09466-z
  • Brenner, J. S., & American Academy of Pediatrics, Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness (2019). Sports Specialization and Intensive Training in Young Athletes. Pediatrics.Medical organisationPopulation: Children and young people in competitive sportsDOI 10.1542/peds.2016-2148
  • Reardon, C. L., Hainline, B., Aron, C. M., et al. (2019). Mental health in elite athletes: International Olympic Committee consensus statement. British Journal of Sports Medicine.Professional AssociationsPopulation: Competitive athletes, including youth.DOI 10.1136/bjsports-2019-100715
  • Zaccaro, A., Piarulli, A., Laurino, M., et al. (2018). How Breath-Control Can Change Your Life: A Systematic Review on Psycho-Physiological Correlates of Slow Breathing. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience.Systematic ReviewPopulation: Predominantly healthy adultsDOI 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00353
  • Bühlmayer, L., Birrer, D., Röthlin, P., Faude, O., & Donath, L. (2017). Effects of Mindfulness Practice on Performance-Relevant Parameters and Performance Outcomes in Sports: A Meta-Analytical Review. Sports Medicine.Systematic ReviewPopulation: Athletes, predominantly young adultsDOI 10.1007/s40279-017-0752-9
  • Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology.Systematic ReviewPopulation: Children, young people, and adults, various sportsDOI 10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728
  • Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Galanis, E., & Theodorakis, Y. (2011). Self-Talk and Sports Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science.Meta-AnalysisPopulation: Athletes of various ages and performance levelsDOI 10.1177/1745691611413136
  • Jamieson, J. P., Mendes, W. B., Blackstock, E., & Schmader, T. (2010). Turning the knots in your stomach into bows: Reappraising arousal improves performance on the GRE. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.Single studyPopulation: Young adults under exam pressureDOI 10.1016/j.jesp.2009.08.015
  • Hanton, S., Mellalieu, S. D., & Hall, R. (2004). Self-confidence and anxiety interpretation: A qualitative investigation. Psychology of Sport and Exercise.Single studyPopulation: Competitive athletesDOI 10.1016/S1469-0292(03)00040-2
  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. American Psychologist.Specialist LiteraturePopulation: Cross-cutting, incl. SportDOI 10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705
  • Holmes, P. S., & Collins, D. J. (2001). The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery: A functional equivalence model for sport psychologists. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology.Specialist LiteraturePopulation: Applied Sport PsychologyDOI 10.1080/10413200109339004
  • Kyllo, L. B., & Landers, D. M. (1995). Goal setting in sport and exercise: A research synthesis to resolve the controversy. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.Meta-AnalysisPopulation: Sporting SamplesDOI 10.1123/jsep.17.2.117
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These contents are knowledge and training offerings from sport psychology. They do not replace psychotherapy, medical treatment, or professional sport psychological support.